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<\/p>\n[ChanhKien.org]<\/b><\/p>\n
Ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ph\u00e1p c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t c\u00e2u ng\u1ea1n ng\u1eef l\u00e0: \u201cLe monde change\u201d v\u1edbi \u00fd ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi s\u1ebd lu\u00f4n lu\u00f4n bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed5i, c\u0169ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 ch\u00fang ta th\u01b0\u1eddng n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng: th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u00e3 thay \u0111\u1ed5i r\u1ed3i. V\u1ecb th\u1ebf ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ea1o c\u1ee7a tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u trong n\u1ec1n h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 thay \u0111\u1ed5i theo s\u1ef1 bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed5i c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. Khi so s\u00e1nh nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i trong kho\u1ea3ng 100 n\u0103m g\u1ea7n \u0111\u00e2y, ch\u00fang ta s\u1ebd ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n r\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t tr\u1ef1c quan nh\u1ea5t ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng thay \u0111\u1ed5i r\u00f5 r\u1ec7t v\u1ec1 hi\u1ec7u \u1ee9ng h\u00ecnh \u1ea3nh.<\/p>\n
D\u1ef1a v\u00e0o c\u00e1c t\u00e0i li\u1ec7u l\u1ecbch s\u1eed v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt khoa h\u1ecdc tr\u1eafc \u0111\u1ecbnh, t\u1eeb l\u00e2u gi\u1edbi m\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n t\u1ea1o n\u00ean nh\u1eefng kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t n\u00e0y ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 do vi\u1ec7c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng nh\u1eefng k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda kh\u00e1c nhau. Tr\u1ea3i qua h\u01a1n m\u1ed9t th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 ch\u1ecbu \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i, ngo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 \u00edt h\u1ecda s\u0129 c\u00f2n tu\u00e2n th\u1ee7 truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi ng\u00e0y nay \u0111\u00e3 d\u1ea7n d\u1ea7n l\u00e3ng qu\u00ean nh\u1eefng k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng.<\/p>\n
Th\u1ef1c ra, ngay t\u1eeb \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 20, gi\u00e1o s\u01b0 Max Doerner, m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0110\u1ee9c \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eebng nh\u1eafc nh\u1edf r\u1eb1ng n\u1ec1n h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i ng\u00e0y nay \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n ch\u00fa \u00fd \u0111\u1ebfn k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u n\u1eefa r\u1ed3i. \u00d4ng n\u00f3i: “Nh\u1eefng k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p xu\u1ea5t s\u1eafc \u0111ang d\u1ea7n b\u1ecb ph\u1edbt l\u1edd, nh\u1eefng truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng t\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eb9p cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng c\u0169ng s\u1ebd m\u1ea5t h\u1eb3n\u201d.<\/p>\n
N\u1ebfu nh\u01b0 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 s\u1ed1ng th\u00eam 100 n\u0103m n\u1eefa \u0111\u1ebfn ng\u00e0y nay, kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft Max Doerner s\u1ebd suy ngh\u0129 nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o khi nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda hi\u1ec7n nay ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng xa r\u1eddi truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng.<\/p>\n
T\u00f4i t\u1eebng t\u1eadn m\u1eaft ch\u1ee9ng ki\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u m\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u01b0u tr\u1eef h\u01a1n m\u01b0\u1eddi n\u0103m, nh\u01b0ng trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh di chuy\u1ec3n, ch\u1ec9 c\u1ea7n rung nh\u1eb9 th\u00ec l\u1edbp m\u00e0u tr\u00ean v\u1ea3i s\u1ebd bong ra t\u1eebng m\u1ea3ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 hoa tuy\u1ebft r\u01a1i. T\u00f4i c\u0169ng t\u1eebng nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 b\u1ee9c tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u t\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 19, 20 b\u1ecb b\u1ea1c m\u00e0u, th\u00e2m \u0111en hay b\u1ecb r\u1ea1n n\u1ee9t nghi\u00eam tr\u1ecdng, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 ch\u00fang \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c qu\u1ea3n trong nh\u1eefng vi\u1ec7n b\u1ea3o t\u00e0ng c\u00f3 \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n t\u1ed1t nh\u1ea5t th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. Ng\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea1i, c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c tranh ra \u0111\u1eddi t\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 15, 16 \u0111ang tr\u01b0ng b\u00e0y t\u1ea1i B\u1ea3o t\u00e0ng Louvre, d\u00f9 \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1ea3i qua bao th\u0103ng tr\u1ea7m l\u1ecbch s\u1eed nh\u01b0ng v\u1eabn c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 to\u00e1t l\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t v\u1ebb \u0111\u1eb9p r\u1ef1c r\u1ee1. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn c\u00f3 li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn vi\u1ec7c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng nh\u1eefng ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u v\u00e0 k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda h\u1ee3p l\u00fd.<\/p>\n
Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eebng nghe n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt v\u1ebd s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u nhi\u1ec1u l\u1edbp. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p \u0111\u00e3 chi\u1ebfm v\u1ecb tr\u00ed ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ea1o ngay t\u1eeb l\u00fac tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n cho \u0111\u1ebfn t\u1eadn n\u1ec1n h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda h\u00e0n l\u00e2m hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i ng\u00e0y nay. C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ebd cho r\u1eb1ng k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p v\u1ebd s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u nhi\u1ec1u l\u1edbp n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m hao t\u1ed1n r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u th\u1eddi gian v\u00e0 c\u00f4ng s\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a h\u1ecda s\u0129. H\u1ecd cho r\u1eb1ng, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n h\u00e0ng tr\u0103m n\u0103m nh\u01b0ng c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a qu\u00e1 kh\u1ee9. M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng hi\u1ec3u t\u1ea1i sao ng\u01b0\u1eddi x\u01b0a l\u1ea1i mu\u1ed1n s\u01a1n \u0111i s\u01a1n l\u1ea1i nhi\u1ec1u l\u1edbp trong khi ch\u1ec9 c\u1ea7n s\u01a1n m\u1ed9t l\u1edbp l\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c r\u1ed3i. Th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y ph\u1ea3n \u00e1nh s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c nhau v\u1ec1 kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p trong nh\u1eefng th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i kh\u00e1c nhau.<\/p>\n
Khi nh\u1eafc \u0111\u1ebfn “k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p”, h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u01b0\u1eddng s\u1ebd c\u00f3 xu h\u01b0\u1edbng ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 “k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt”. Tuy nhi\u00ean tr\u00ean th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n xuy\u00ean su\u1ed1t trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh th\u1ef1c h\u00e0nh v\u00e0 v\u1eadn d\u1ee5ng th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf trong m\u1ed9t ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3. Trong nh\u1eefng th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i coi tr\u1ecdng k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p th\u00ec k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt ri\u00eang l\u1ebb \u0111\u01a1n thu\u1ea7n. T\u1eeb quan ni\u1ec7m ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt, c\u00e1c b\u01b0\u1edbc v\u1ebd, quy tr\u00ecnh v\u1ebd cho \u0111\u1ebfn vi\u1ec7c l\u1ef1a ch\u1ecdn v\u00e0 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u h\u1ee3p l\u00fd, t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng di\u1ec7n n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u th\u1ea5m nhu\u1ea7n v\u00e0 ph\u1ea3n \u00e1nh nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb tinh th\u1ea7n v\u00e0 t\u00e2m linh m\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u1ecda s\u0129 theo \u0111u\u1ed5i.<\/p>\n
N\u1ebfu ch\u00fang ta xem k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 t\u1ed5ng h\u00f2a c\u1ee7a c\u1ea3 hai m\u1eb7t v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t v\u00e0 tinh th\u1ea7n, th\u00ec nh\u1eefng y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t nh\u01b0 k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt hay ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n \u201ck\u1ef9\u201d trong k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p, ng\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea1i ph\u1ea7n \u201cph\u00e1p\u201d s\u1ebd bao h\u00e0m nh\u1eefng y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 nh\u01b0 nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc, quy t\u1eafc, t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n trong ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y: t\u1eeb “Technique” ng\u00e0y nay b\u1eaft ngu\u1ed3n t\u1eeb ti\u1ebfng Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 “Techn\u00e8” (\u03c4\u03ad\u03c7\u03bd\u03b7). Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ec1u bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m c\u1ee7a t\u1eeb n\u00e0y r\u1ea5t r\u1ed9ng, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 bao h\u00e0m nh\u1eefng n\u1ed9i dung li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a kh\u1eafc k\u1ef7 th\u01b0\u1eddng gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch \u00fd ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a t\u1eeb n\u00e0y l\u00e0 “Hexis hodopoi\u00e8tik\u00e9”, c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 “s\u1ef1 s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o c\u1ee7a \u0110\u1ea1o”. Trong m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m l\u1edbn c\u1ee7a Plato, t\u1eeb “Techn\u00e8” n\u00e0y c\u0169ng xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n th\u01b0\u1eddng xuy\u00ean v\u00e0 th\u01b0\u1eddng c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a g\u1ea7n gi\u1ed1ng v\u1edbi “ch\u00ednh ngh\u0129a” \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi c\u00e1c kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m “\u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c”. . . . Nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, n\u1ebfu ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng ch\u00fa \u00fd \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng \u00fd ngh\u0129a v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t tinh th\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p th\u00ec \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y s\u1ebd \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng r\u1ea5t l\u1edbn \u0111\u1ebfn vi\u1ec7c t\u00ecm hi\u1ec3u h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng.<\/p>\n
Tinh khi\u1ebft v\u00e0 t\u01b0\u01a1i s\u00e1ng<\/b><\/p>\n
Kh\u00e1t khao s\u1ef1 ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o hay y\u00eau th\u00edch s\u1ef1 t\u01b0\u01a1i s\u00e1ng l\u00e0 con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt m\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ngh\u1ec7 s\u0129 v\u1edbi th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi tinh th\u1ea7n phong ph\u00fa kh\u00f4ng ng\u1eebng theo \u0111u\u1ed5i. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n r\u00f5 v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 14, 15 khi n\u1ec1n ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n r\u1ef1c r\u1ee1.<\/p>\n
Tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3, phong c\u00e1ch ki\u1ebfn tr\u00fac Gothic \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng ng\u1eebng c\u1ea3i ti\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng k\u1ebft c\u1ea5u nh\u01b0 m\u00e1i v\u00f2m, khung v\u00f2m nh\u1ecdn, tr\u1ee5 bay nh\u1eb1m l\u00e0m gi\u1ea3m tr\u1ecdng l\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1eddng. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y gi\u00fap t\u0103ng d\u1ea7n k\u00edch th\u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng chi\u1ebfc c\u1eeda s\u1ed5 h\u1eb9p v\u00e0 t\u1ed1i tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y trong c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 th\u1edd. Khi c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng chi\u1ebfu v\u00e0o h\u01a1n, \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng th\u1ee7y tinh m\u00e0u \u0111\u00e3 khi\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt tr\u00ean \u00f4 c\u1eeda s\u1ed5 ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng phong ph\u00fa. S\u1ef1 trong su\u1ed1t, tinh khi\u1ebft v\u00e0 r\u1ef1c r\u1ee1 nhi\u1ec1u m\u00e0u s\u1eafc n\u00e0y c\u0169ng \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi d\u1eabn d\u1eaft v\u00e0 khai m\u1edf th\u1ea7n t\u00ednh c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi.<\/p>\n
T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m “T\u01b0\u1ee3ng th\u1edd Ghent – Con chi\u00ean huy\u1ec1n b\u00ed” (\u00abRetable de l’Agneau Mystique\u00bb) c\u1ee7a hai anh em Van Eyck, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u00e1ng t\u00e1c trong giai \u0111o\u1ea1n 1415 – 1432, to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 t\u01b0\u1ee3ng th\u1edd c\u00f3 k\u00edch th\u01b0\u1edbc kho\u1ea3ng 343 x 440 cm, l\u1ea5y ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1 t\u1eeb s\u00e1ch “Kh\u1ea3i huy\u1ec1n” trong Kinh Th\u00e1nh v\u1edbi n\u1ed9i dung ca ng\u1ee3i l\u00f2ng t\u1eeb bi c\u1ee9u r\u1ed7i mu\u00f4n lo\u00e0i c\u1ee7a \u0110\u1ee9c Ch\u00faa Tr\u1eddi trong th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 m\u1ea1t th\u1ebf. Vi\u1ec7c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt v\u1ebd s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u nhi\u1ec1u l\u1edbp b\u1eb1ng d\u1ea7u nh\u1ef1a c\u00e2y c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi phong c\u00e1ch t\u1ea3 th\u1ef1c t\u0129nh l\u1eb7ng v\u00e0 tinh t\u1ebf \u0111\u00e3 khi\u1ebfn b\u1ee9c tranh tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng ki\u1ec7t t\u00e1c quan tr\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u.<\/p>\n
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M\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n tranh b\u00e0n th\u1edd<\/em><\/p>\n M\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n tranh b\u00e0n th\u1edd<\/em><\/p>\n V\u00e0o th\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3, h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda mi\u1ec1n B\u1eafc ch\u00e2u \u00c2u l\u1ea5y tranh b\u00e0n th\u1edd l\u00e0m ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ea1o, h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft l\u00e0 c\u00e1c b\u1ee9c tranh t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u0111\u1eb7t tr\u00ean b\u00e0n th\u1edd, tranh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1ebd tr\u00ean b\u1ea3ng g\u1ed7 v\u00e0 \u0111\u1eb7t tr\u01b0\u1edbc th\u00e1nh \u0111\u00e0n trong gi\u00e1o \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng, th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n s\u1ef1 ca t\u1ee5ng v\u00e0 k\u00ednh ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Ch\u00faa. S\u1ef1 thay \u0111\u1ed5i m\u00e0u s\u1eafc \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng thu\u1ea7n khi\u1ebft khi \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng xuy\u00ean qua l\u1edbp th\u1ee7y tinh \u0111\u1ea7y m\u00e0u s\u1eafc tr\u00ean c\u00e1c \u00f4 c\u1eeda s\u1ed5 \u0111\u00e3 truy\u1ec1n c\u1ea3m h\u1ee9ng cho c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129. Nh\u1eefng h\u1ecda s\u0129 n\u00e0y hy v\u1ecdng r\u1eb1ng t\u00e2m tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd c\u0169ng s\u1ebd trong s\u00e1ng v\u00e0 thu\u1ea7n khi\u1ebft nh\u01b0 \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng \u1ea5y. Nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1ebd v\u1edbi t\u00e2m th\u00e1i nh\u01b0 v\u1eady c\u0169ng s\u1ebd t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean tr\u1edf n\u00ean thu\u1ea7n khi\u1ebft, s\u00e1ng s\u1ee7a v\u00e0 tinh t\u1ebf. Khi vi\u1ec7c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng d\u1ea7u nh\u1ef1a c\u00e2y l\u00e0m dung m\u00f4i s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u d\u1ea7n d\u1ea7n ho\u00e0n thi\u1ec7n, nh\u1eefng h\u1ecda s\u0129 th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda Flemish (Primitifs flamands) v\u1edbi \u0111\u1ea1i di\u1ec7n l\u00e0 anh em Van Eyck \u0111\u00e3 s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o n\u00ean k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p “s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u nhi\u1ec1u l\u1edbp” \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u01b0u truy\u1ec1n l\u00e2u d\u00e0i trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed.<\/p>\n T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u201cCh\u00e2n dung ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef v\u1edbi m\u00e1i t\u00f3c xo\u00e3\u201d (Jeune fille d\u00e9coiff\u00e9e) l\u00e0 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u00f2n dang d\u1edf c\u1ee7a Da Vinci, k\u00edch th\u01b0\u1edbc 24,7 x 21 cm, s\u00e1ng t\u00e1c v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1508. Tr\u00ean l\u1edbp l\u00f3t trong su\u1ed1t m\u00e0u n\u00e2u \u0111\u1ecf, h\u1ecda s\u0129 l\u00e1ng l\u1edbp tr\u1eafng ch\u00ec l\u00ean ph\u1ea7n s\u00e1ng c\u1ee7a b\u1ee9c ch\u00e2n dung, \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec1u ch\u1ec9nh \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y c\u1ee7a l\u1edbp tr\u1eafng ch\u00ec, l\u1ee3i d\u1ee5ng l\u1edbp s\u01a1n ph\u1ee7 v\u1edbi \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y kh\u00e1c nhau t\u1ea1o n\u00ean \u0111\u1ed9 s\u00e1ng t\u1ed1i v\u00e0 h\u00ecnh kh\u1ed1i cho b\u1ee9c tranh. K\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p n\u00e0y g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 “l\u00e0m tr\u1eafng”\/t\u1ea1o \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng tr\u1eafng. N\u1ebfu nh\u01b0 ho\u1ea1 s\u0129 mu\u1ed1n ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c ho\u00e0n thi\u1ec7n b\u1ee9c v\u1ebd, th\u00ec c\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ee3i l\u1edbp s\u01a1n n\u00e0y ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00f4 \u0111i, r\u1ed3i s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u m\u00e0u \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t trong su\u1ed1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u ch\u1ebf t\u1eeb d\u1ea7u nh\u1ef1a c\u00e2y l\u00e1ng c\u00e1c l\u1edbp r\u1ea5t m\u1ecfng l\u00ean l\u1edbp m\u00e0u tr\u1eafng, qua l\u1edbp m\u00e0u tr\u1eafng m\u1ecfng trong su\u1ed1t c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1edbp l\u00f3t, \u0111\u00e2y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 “ph\u1ee7”. (T\u1ea5t nhi\u00ean, \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y ch\u1ec9 gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u s\u01a1 l\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n v\u1ec1 “l\u00e0m tr\u1eafng” v\u00e0 “ph\u1ee7” \u0111\u1ec3 thu\u1eadn ti\u1ec7n cho nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ed9c gi\u1ea3 kh\u00f4ng chuy\u00ean ng\u00e0nh v\u1ec1 ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ecdc hi\u1ec3u b\u00e0i vi\u1ebft n\u00e0y).<\/p>\n C\u00e1c b\u1eadc th\u1ea7y h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n r\u1eb1ng, khi h\u1ecd c\u1ea9n th\u1eadn ph\u1ee7 m\u1ed9t l\u1edbp m\u00e0u trong su\u1ed1t v\u00e0 tinh khi\u1ebft l\u00ean l\u1edbp m\u00e0u n\u1ec1n s\u00e1ng v\u00e0 nh\u1ea1t h\u01a1n, khi l\u1edbp d\u1ea7u nh\u1ef1a c\u00e2y kh\u00f4 l\u1ea1i s\u1ebd t\u1ea1o n\u00ean m\u1ed9t k\u1ebft c\u1ea5u s\u00e1ng nh\u01b0 th\u1ee7y tinh, l\u00e0m t\u00f4n l\u00ean v\u1ebb \u0111\u1eb9p c\u1ee7a l\u1edbp m\u00e0u trong su\u1ed1t. V\u1ec1 l\u1edbp n\u1ec1n, n\u1ebfu l\u1edbp m\u00e0u trong su\u1ed1t ph\u1ed1i tr\u00ean n\u1ec1n tr\u1eafng nh\u1ea1t th\u00ec t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m s\u1ebd r\u1ea1ng r\u1ee1 h\u01a1n. Ng\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea1i n\u1ebfu ph\u1ed1i m\u00e0u trong su\u1ed1t tr\u00ean n\u1ec1n \u0111en s\u1ebd t\u1ea1o cho ng\u01b0\u1eddi xem c\u1ea3m gi\u00e1c ng\u1ed9t ng\u1ea1t v\u00e0 d\u01a1 b\u1ea9n. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y c\u0169ng t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c \u00f4 c\u1eeda s\u1ed5 m\u00e0u c\u1ee7a nh\u00e0 th\u1edd c\u1ea7n \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n ra m\u00e0u s\u1eafc r\u1ef1c r\u1ee1 c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang. Do \u0111\u00f3, nh\u1eefng b\u1eadc th\u1ea7y h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda th\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh nhi\u1ec1u l\u1ea7n r\u1eb1ng tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u c\u1ea7n c\u00f3 “\u00e1nh s\u00e1ng t\u1eeb b\u00ean trong”. \u0110\u00e2y c\u0169ng l\u00e0 \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng n\u1ed9i t\u00e2m m\u00e0 c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 kh\u00f4ng ng\u1eebng t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm v\u00e0 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n ra trong t\u1eebng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3. K\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt l\u00e0m tr\u1eafng \u1edf c\u00e1c giai \u0111o\u1ea1n kh\u00e1c nhau trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh v\u1ebd, k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt ph\u1ee7 trong su\u1ed1t ho\u1eb7c b\u00e1n trong su\u1ed1t c\u0169ng ph\u1ea3n \u00e1nh tinh th\u1ea7n n\u00e0y.<\/p>\n B\u1ee9c tranh \u201c\u0110\u1ee9c M\u1eb9 L\u00ean Tr\u1eddi\u201d (\u00ab\u00a0L\u2019Assomption de la Vierge\u00a0\u00bb) c\u1ee7a Titian, m\u1ed9t h\u1ecda s\u0129 ti\u00eau bi\u1ec3u c\u1ee7a tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i Venice, tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u tr\u00ean v\u00e1n g\u1ed7, k\u00edch th\u01b0\u1edbc 690 x 360 cm, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u00e1ng t\u00e1c trong giai \u0111o\u1ea1n 1516 – 1518. V\u1edbi k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p l\u00e0m tr\u1eafng l\u1edbp l\u00f3t \u0111i\u00eau luy\u1ec7n, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1ea3i qua n\u0103m th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u0103ng tr\u1ea7m, b\u1ee9c tranh n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng n\u00e0y v\u1eabn th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec7u \u1ee9ng m\u00e0u s\u1eafc v\u00f4 c\u00f9ng t\u01b0\u01a1i s\u00e1ng v\u00e0 s\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed9ng.<\/p>\n \u0110\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi, ch\u1ea5t l\u01b0\u1ee3ng tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u c\u0169ng li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u: theo th\u1eddi gian, ph\u1ea7n s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u tr\u00ean b\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t khi ti\u1ebfp x\u00fac l\u00e2u v\u1edbi kh\u00f4ng kh\u00ed s\u1ebd b\u1ecb oxy h\u00f3a nhanh h\u01a1n. Trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh n\u00e0y, l\u1edbp m\u00e0u b\u00ean tr\u00ean s\u1ebd d\u1ea7n chuy\u1ec3n sang m\u00e0u n\u00e2u. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u00e0u m\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta th\u01b0\u1eddng g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 “m\u00e0u c\u1ee7a vi\u1ec7n b\u1ea3o t\u00e0ng”. \u0110\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi, kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng che ph\u1ee7 c\u1ee7a l\u1edbp m\u00e0u b\u00ean ngo\u00e0i c\u0169ng gi\u1ea3m b\u1edbt v\u00e0 l\u1edbp s\u01a1n m\u00e0u d\u1ea7n tr\u1edf n\u00ean trong su\u1ed1t. N\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 l\u1edbp m\u00e0u n\u1ec1n s\u00e1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e0m tr\u1eafng t\u1eeb b\u00ean trong \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i l\u1edbp s\u01a1n b\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t b\u1ecb ng\u1ea3 m\u00e0u n\u00e2u v\u00e0 d\u1ea7n tr\u1edf n\u00ean trong su\u1ed1t th\u00ec to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 b\u1ee9c tranh s\u1ebd t\u1ed1i \u0111i. Tuy r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng chuy\u00ean gia ph\u1ee5c ch\u1ebf tranh c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u1ea1m th\u1eddi l\u00e0m gi\u1ea3m b\u1edbt hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u00e0y b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch r\u1eeda s\u1ea1ch l\u1edbp s\u01a1n b\u00f3ng c\u0169 v\u00e0 s\u01a1n l\u1ea1i l\u1edbp s\u01a1n b\u00f3ng m\u1edbi, nh\u01b0ng s\u1ef1 l\u00e3o h\u00f3a c\u1ee7a b\u1ee9c tranh v\u1eabn kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea3o ng\u01b0\u1ee3c, v\u00ec s\u1ef1 b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a l\u1edbp s\u01a1n b\u00f3ng m\u1edbi kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n ng\u0103n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 nh\u01b0 oxy, s\u1ef1 ch\u00eanh l\u1ec7ch nhi\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed9, \u0111\u1ed9 \u1ea9m v\u00e0 c\u00e1c y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 kh\u00e1c t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng l\u00ean b\u1ee9c tranh.<\/p>\n Nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1ebd m\u1ed9t l\u1ea7n tr\u00ean n\u1ec1n t\u1ed1i th\u00ec kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng ch\u1ed1ng ch\u1ecdi v\u1edbi th\u1eddi gian s\u1ebd k\u00e9m h\u01a1n. Khi c\u00e1c l\u1edbp d\u1ea7u b\u1ecb tho\u00e1i h\u00f3a v\u00e0 chuy\u1ec3n sang m\u00e0u n\u00e2u, ch\u00fang s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 c\u1ee7a \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng t\u1eeb c\u00e1c l\u1edbp b\u00ean d\u01b0\u1edbi. Khi l\u1edbp s\u01a1n m\u00e0u l\u00e3o h\u00f3a, m\u1ea5t kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng che ph\u1ee7 v\u00e0 d\u1ea7n tr\u1edf n\u00ean trong su\u1ed1t, l\u1edbp n\u1ec1n t\u1ed1i s\u1ebd d\u1ea7n d\u1ea7n l\u1ed9 ra, khi\u1ebfn b\u1ee9c tranh tr\u1edf n\u00ean r\u1ea5t t\u1ed1i.<\/p>\n B\u1ee9c tranh \u00abS\u1ef1 \u0111\u00f3ng \u0111inh\u00bb c\u1ee7a Tintoretto, tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u tr\u00ean canvas, k\u00edch th\u01b0\u1edbc 371 \u00d7 341 cm, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1ebd v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1568. Do h\u1ecda s\u0129 kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea9n th\u1eadn khi l\u00e0m tr\u1eafng l\u1edbp l\u00f3t n\u00ean l\u1edbp s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u \u0111\u00e3 xu\u1ed1ng c\u1ea5p theo th\u1eddi gian, d\u1ea7n d\u1ea7n m\u1ea5t \u0111i \u0111\u1ed9 che ph\u1ee7, l\u1edbp m\u00e0u n\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ecf s\u1eabm t\u1eeb t\u1eeb l\u1ed9 ra, khi\u1ebfn t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a Tintoretto b\u1ecb t\u1ed1i \u0111i r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u.<\/p>\n C\u00e1c t\u00e0i li\u1ec7u l\u1ecbch s\u1eed t\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 16,17 c\u0169ng t\u1eebng \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp \u0111\u1ebfn k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p v\u1ebd tranh m\u1ed9t l\u1ea7n. Th\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng nh\u1eefng h\u1ecda s\u0129 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng “v\u1ebd m\u1ed9t l\u1ea7n” trong giai \u0111o\u1ea1n n\u00e0y th\u01b0\u1eddng s\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u1ee3 l\u00fd chu\u1ea9n b\u1ecb s\u1eb5n m\u1ed9t l\u1edbp t\u1ea1o h\u00ecnh \u0111\u01a1n s\u1eafc m\u1ecfng, sau \u0111\u00f3 s\u1ebd ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ecbnh h\u00ecnh b\u1eb1ng m\u1ed9t l\u1edbp m\u00e0u nh\u1ea1t h\u01a1n so v\u1edbi l\u1edbp m\u00e0u cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng, r\u1ed3i \u0111\u1ee3i l\u1edbp m\u00e0u n\u00e0y kh\u00f4 trong v\u00f2ng m\u1ed9t ho\u1eb7c hai th\u00e1ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi ph\u1ee7 l\u1edbp m\u00e0u trong su\u1ed1t, nh\u01b0 v\u1eady v\u1eabn \u0111\u1ea3m b\u1ea3o k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u nhi\u1ec1u l\u1edbp truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng. C\u00e1ch l\u00e0m n\u00e0y ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00e1c v\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh b\u1ee9c tranh trong m\u1ed9t l\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 ng\u00e0y nay. Tr\u1eeb m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 b\u1ee9c tranh d\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ec3 luy\u1ec7n t\u1eadp, th\u00ec c\u00e1c b\u1eadc th\u1ea7y am hi\u1ec3u v\u1ec1 ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u v\u00e0 k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u th\u01b0\u1eddng s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng m\u1ea1o hi\u1ec3m v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m ch\u00ednh th\u1ee9c.<\/p>\n \u00c1nh s\u00e1ng b\u00ean trong v\u00e0 \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng b\u00ean ngo\u00e0i<\/b><\/p>\n D\u1ef1a theo nh\u1eefng ghi ch\u00e9p trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed, ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng k\u1ec3 t\u1eeb sau khi h\u1ecda s\u0129 Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i Apollodorus Skiagraphos ho\u00e0n thi\u1ec7n ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p Chiaroscuro (Skiagraphia) v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc c\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean, n\u1ec1n h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y trong h\u01a1n 2000 n\u0103m v\u1eabn ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c duy tr\u00ec vi\u1ec7c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng hai t\u00f4ng m\u00e0u s\u00e1ng v\u00e0 t\u1ed1i \u0111\u1ec3 mi\u00eau t\u1ea3 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch ch\u00e2n th\u1ef1c h\u00ecnh d\u1ea1ng v\u00e0 di\u1ec7n m\u1ea1o t\u1ed5ng th\u1ec3 c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 v\u1eadt. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda kh\u00e1c nhau trong nh\u1eefng th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed kh\u00e1c nhau s\u1ebd c\u00f3 phong c\u00e1ch \u0111\u1ed9c \u0111\u00e1o ri\u00eang, nh\u01b0ng nh\u00ecn chung phong c\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y v\u1eabn c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 nh\u1ea5t qu\u00e1n v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng di\u1ec7n n\u00e0y.<\/p>\n Sau \u0111\u00f3, th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng \u1edf ch\u00e2u \u00c2u v\u00e0 200 n\u0103m ti\u1ebfp theo \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a n\u1ec1n h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ec9nh cao v\u01b0\u1ee3t tr\u1ed9i. Nh\u1eefng th\u1ebf h\u1ec7 ngh\u1ec7 s\u0129 b\u1eadc th\u1ea7y, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi lu\u00f4n theo \u0111u\u1ed5i \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng trong t\u00e2m h\u1ed3n \u0111\u00e3 th\u00fac \u0111\u1ea9y s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a n\u1ec1n ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt th\u1ea7n th\u00e1nh. V\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 18 v\u00e0 19, nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u c\u1ee7a hai b\u1eadc th\u1ea7y David (Jacques-Louis David) v\u00e0 Ingres (Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres) d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 khi\u1ebfn cho nh\u1eefng th\u1ebf h\u1ec7 t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 v\u1edbi t\u1edbi. D\u00f9 l\u00e0 v\u1ec1 ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u hay k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p, kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng v\u01b0\u1ee3t qua nh\u1eefng b\u1eadc ti\u1ec1n b\u1ed1i n\u00e0y d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 r\u1ea5t \u00edt. Ngay l\u00fac \u0111\u00f3, m\u1ed9t l\u1ed1i \u0111i kh\u00e1c xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n v\u00e0 tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng b\u01b0\u1edbc l\u00ean v\u0169 \u0111\u00e0i l\u1ecbch s\u1eed.<\/p>\n Trong n\u1ec1n h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng, \u0111i\u1ec1u th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm v\u00e0 c\u1ed1 g\u1eafng \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a \u00fd ch\u00ed ki\u00ean \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u00e0 \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng b\u00ean trong. Ng\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea1i, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng l\u1ea1i mong mu\u1ed1n \u0111\u01b0a \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng n\u00e0y ra b\u00ean ngo\u00e0i. C\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 theo tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng cho r\u1eb1ng, th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi th\u1ef1c t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i qua s\u1ef1 quan s\u00e1t c\u1ee7a \u0111\u00f4i m\u1eaft, ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 m\u00e0u s\u1eafc, \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng v\u00e0 b\u00f3ng t\u1ed1i. H\u1ecd kh\u00f4ng quan t\u00e2m \u0111\u1ebfn b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 v\u1eadt. V\u00ec v\u1eady, h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1 v\u1ee1 truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng t\u1ea3 th\u1ef1c h\u00e0ng ngh\u00ecn n\u0103m c\u1ee7a h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda ch\u00e2u \u00c2u v\u00e0 chuy\u1ec3n sang th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n v\u1ebb ngo\u00e0i c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 v\u1eadt theo c\u1ea3m quan. V\u1ebb ngo\u00e0i n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i nh\u1eb1m th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n di\u1ec7n m\u1ea1o v\u1ed1n c\u00f3 c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 v\u1eadt, m\u00e0 l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u00f3ng \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ea3m gi\u00e1c v\u1ec1 \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng v\u00e0 b\u00f3ng t\u1ed1i.<\/p>\n Do tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng t\u1eadp trung v\u00e0o vi\u1ec7c th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n h\u00ecnh \u1ea3nh do h\u1ecda s\u0129 c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn, n\u00ean h\u1ecd th\u01b0\u1eddng b\u1ecf qua h\u00ecnh d\u1ea1ng v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng n\u00e9t c\u1ee7a v\u1eadt th\u1ec3. D\u01b0\u1edbi s\u1ef1 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a phong c\u00e1ch n\u00e0y, c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 \u0111\u00e3 d\u1ea7n b\u1ecf qu\u00ean nh\u1eefng k\u1ef9 n\u0103ng c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ec3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh h\u1ecda s\u0129. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng t\u1ea1o h\u00ecnh nghi\u00eam t\u00fac, c\u1ea9n th\u1eadn t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u1ee9ng v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ki\u1ebfn th\u1ee9c chuy\u00ean m\u00f4n v\u1ec1 k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u.<\/p>\n Jacques Maroger, m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng c\u1ee7a Ph\u00e1p \u1edf th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 tr\u01b0\u1edbc, \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eebng \u0111\u01b0a ra v\u00ed d\u1ee5: m\u1ed9t m\u1ea3nh l\u1ee5a s\u1ebd th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n s\u1ef1 thay \u0111\u1ed5i m\u00e0u s\u1eafc phong ph\u00fa h\u01a1n, \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ed9 t\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u1ea3n s\u00e1ng t\u1ed1i v\u00e0 c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng c\u0169ng m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd h\u01a1n so v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t m\u1ea3nh v\u1ea3i len c\u00f9ng m\u00e0u. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y l\u00e0 do hai ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ed9 bao ph\u1ee7 m\u00e0u kh\u00e1c nhau. Do \u0111\u00f3, tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u v\u1ebd b\u1eb1ng ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u r\u1ef1c r\u1ee1 s\u1ebd c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ed9 bao ph\u1ee7 m\u00e0u r\u1ed9ng h\u01a1n so v\u1edbi tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u m\u1edd.<\/p>\n C\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng mu\u1ed1n th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n nh\u1eefng thay \u0111\u1ed5i ho\u1eb7c rung \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng, s\u1ebd c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh b\u1ea3n ph\u00e1c th\u1ea3o m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch nhanh ch\u00f3ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi th\u1eddi ti\u1ebft thay \u0111\u1ed5i. \u0110\u1ec3 l\u00e0m cho b\u1ee9c tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u mau kh\u00f4, h\u1ecd s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng l\u1edbp s\u01a1n l\u00f3t c\u00f3 t\u00ednh th\u1ea5m n\u01b0\u1edbc h\u01a1n, h\u1ecd kh\u00f4ng s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng d\u1ea7u khi v\u1ebd. M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 h\u1ecda s\u0129 l\u1ea1i ch\u1ecdn c\u00e1ch s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng d\u1ea7u d\u1ec5 bay h\u01a1i \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u00fap tranh nhanh kh\u00f4 h\u01a1n. H\u1ea7u h\u1ebft nh\u1eefng h\u1ecda s\u0129 theo tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng d\u00f9ng d\u1ea7u b\u00f3ng sau khi v\u1ebd xong nh\u1eb1m gi\u1eef nguy\u00ean c\u1ea3m gi\u00e1c ban \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a b\u1ee9c tranh. H\u1ecd ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng r\u1eb1ng luy\u1ec7n t\u1eadp c\u0169ng l\u00e0 \u0111ang s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o. V\u1edbi c\u00e1ch l\u00e0m n\u00e0y, b\u1ee9c tranh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh sau m\u1ed9t l\u1ea7n v\u1ebd, l\u1edbp m\u00e0u sau khi kh\u00f4 \u0111i, b\u1ecb h\u00fat d\u1ea7u v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ed9 b\u00f3ng, k\u1ef3 th\u1ef1c tr\u00f4ng kh\u00e1 x\u00e1m x\u1ecbt. \u0110\u00e2y c\u0169ng l\u00e0 l\u00fd do khi\u1ebfn c\u00f9ng m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i m\u00e0u nh\u01b0ng tranh m\u00e0u n\u01b0\u1edbc tr\u00f4ng h\u01a1i x\u00e1m h\u01a1n so v\u1edbi tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u.<\/p>\n \u0110\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi, \u0111\u1ec3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng b\u00ean ngo\u00e0i, c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp tr\u1ed9n b\u1ed9t m\u00e0u tr\u1eafng v\u1edbi c\u00e1c b\u1ed9t m\u00e0u kh\u00e1c tr\u00ean b\u1ea3ng m\u00e0u, tr\u1ed9n b\u1ed9t m\u00e0u xong t\u00f4 r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u b\u1ed9t m\u00e0u l\u00ean b\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t c\u1ee7a tranh. Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p n\u00e0y l\u00e0m gi\u1ea3m \u0111\u1ed9 s\u00e1ng c\u1ee7a m\u00e0u tr\u1eafng, \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi c\u0169ng l\u00e0m gi\u1ea3m \u0111\u1ed9 tinh khi\u1ebft c\u1ee7a m\u00e0u s\u1eafc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c pha tr\u1ed9n, l\u1ea1i th\u00eam l\u1edbp l\u00f3t c\u00f3 t\u00ednh th\u1ea5m d\u1ea7u khi\u1ebfn to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 b\u1ee9c tranh t\u1ed1i \u0111i. Nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, c\u00e1c b\u1ee9c tranh theo tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng kh\u00f4ng h\u1ec1 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng v\u00e0 m\u00e0u s\u1eafc m\u00e0 h\u1ecd mong mu\u1ed1n. R\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi khi xem b\u1ea3n g\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c tranh theo tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ed3ng t\u00ecnh r\u1eb1ng: Nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c tranh n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng r\u1ef1c r\u1ee1 nh\u01b0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng, kh\u00f4ng gi\u1ed1ng v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c h\u00ecnh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u trong s\u00e1ch, ho\u1eb7c trong c\u00e1c \u1ea5n ph\u1ea9m.<\/p>\n Tr\u00e1i ng\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1edbi k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p v\u1ebd nhi\u1ec1u l\u1edbp c\u1ee7a h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n, c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 hi\u1ec7n nay \u0111\u00e3 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u00e1c k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt kh\u00e1c. Nhi\u1ec1u h\u1ecda s\u0129 b\u1eadc th\u1ea7y c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n sau khi s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt \u201cl\u00e0m tr\u1eafng\u201d b\u1eb1ng tempera kh\u00f3 \u0111\u1ed5i m\u00e0u, b\u00ean tr\u00ean ph\u1ee7 m\u1ed9t l\u1edbp m\u00e0u trong su\u1ed1t tinh khi\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u ch\u1ebf t\u1eeb d\u1ea7u nh\u1ef1a c\u00e2y trong su\u1ed1t. V\u00ec l\u1edbp tr\u00ean trong su\u1ed1t n\u00ean c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ph\u1ea3n x\u1ea1 \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng t\u1eeb ph\u1ea7n \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m tr\u1eafng b\u00ean d\u01b0\u1edbi, l\u1edbp m\u00e0u trong su\u1ed1t kh\u00f4ng l\u1eabn v\u1edbi c\u00e1c m\u00e0u kh\u00e1c n\u00ean c\u0169ng \u0111\u1ea3m b\u1ea3o \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ed9 tinh khi\u1ebft. \u0110\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi, d\u1ea7u nh\u1ef1a c\u00e2y c\u00f3 \u0111\u1eb7c t\u00ednh trong su\u1ed1t v\u00e0 b\u00f3ng, gi\u00fap m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed9 bao ph\u1ee7 m\u00e0u c\u1ee7a ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u. Hi\u1ec7u \u1ee9ng quang h\u1ecdc t\u01b0\u01a1i s\u00e1ng v\u00e0 tinh khi\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea1o n\u00ean qua vi\u1ec7c k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p c\u00e1c t\u1ea7ng m\u00e0u s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 n\u00e0o \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u1ebfu tr\u1ed9n c\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i b\u1ed9t m\u00e0u tr\u00ean b\u1ea3ng m\u00e0u, hi\u1ec7u \u1ee9ng n\u00e0y v\u1eeba \u0111\u1ea3m b\u1ea3o c\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ed9 s\u00e1ng v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed9 tinh khi\u1ebft, khi\u1ebfn t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u00e0ng th\u00eam trong s\u00e1ng, l\u00f3ng l\u00e1nh, \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y c\u00e0ng h\u1ee3p l\u00fd ph\u1ea3i kh\u00f4ng?<\/p>\n Nghi\u00eam ng\u1eb7t v\u00e0 t\u00f9y ti\u1ec7n<\/b><\/p>\n V\u00e0o gi\u1eefa th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 19, s\u1ef1 ra \u0111\u1eddi c\u1ee7a b\u1ed9t m\u00e0u d\u1ea1ng \u1ed1ng \u0111\u00e3 nhanh ch\u00f3ng ch\u1ea5m d\u1ee9t giai \u0111o\u1ea1n c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 ph\u1ea3i t\u1ef1 m\u00e0i b\u1ed9t m\u00e0u. C\u00f4ng vi\u1ec7c c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ed9i ng\u0169 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u00e0 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n trong c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 m\u00e1y s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t b\u1ed9t m\u00e0u \u0111\u00e3 d\u1ea7n thay th\u1ebf vi\u1ec7c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u ri\u00eang l\u1ebb c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129, \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi c\u0169ng thay \u0111\u1ed5i nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta v\u1ec1 v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u v\u00e0 k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda. Tr\u00ean th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7, t\u1eeb thu\u1ed1c m\u00e0u \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 \u0111\u1ec3 v\u1ebd th\u00ec ch\u1ea5t l\u01b0\u1ee3ng v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u \u0111\u1ec1u t\u1ed1t h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u so v\u1edbi c\u00e1c th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 tr\u01b0\u1edbc. \u0110\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi, nh\u1eefng ki\u1ebfn th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta v\u1ec1 b\u1ea3o qu\u1ea3n tranh c\u0169ng d\u1ea7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ho\u00e0n thi\u1ec7n, v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt b\u1ea3o t\u00e0ng c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 s\u1ed1 \u0111\u00e3 gi\u00fap nhi\u1ec1u t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 \u1edf m\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ed9 chuy\u00ean gia ngay sau khi ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh. M\u1eb7t kh\u00e1c, k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt v\u1ebd m\u1ed9t l\u1ea7n sau khi \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n h\u00f3a \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi ki\u1ebfn th\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u \u00edt h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u so v\u1edbi ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p v\u1ebd s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u nhi\u1ec1u l\u1edbp c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n.<\/p>\n Tuy nhi\u00ean, \u0111i\u1ec1u ch\u00fang ta c\u1ea7n quan t\u00e2m ch\u00ednh l\u00e0, trong \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng t\u1ed1t h\u01a1n nh\u01b0 v\u1eady nh\u01b0ng c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng l\u1edbn nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u t\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 19 v\u00e0 20 \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng b\u1ea1c m\u00e0u, s\u1eabm m\u00e0u, n\u1ee9t v\u00e0 bong tr\u00f3c l\u1edbp m\u00e0u. Nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n n\u00e0o t\u1ea1o th\u00e0nh hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u00e0y?<\/p>\n M\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a b\u1ee9c tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u \u201cC\u1ea3nh \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng tr\u01a1n tr\u01b0\u1ee3t trong c\u01a1n m\u01b0a tr\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 Brian\u00e7on\u201d (Vue de Brian\u00e7on avec une vue anim\u00e9e de la rue de la Grande Gargouille) thu\u1ed9c tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng. B\u1ee9c tranh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u00e1ng t\u00e1c v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng n\u0103m 1870, kh\u00f4ng r\u00f5 t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 l\u00e0 ai. C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y b\u1ee9c tranh \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb \u0111\u1ed5i m\u00e0u nghi\u00eam tr\u1ecdng v\u00e0 b\u1ecb n\u1ee9t do c\u00e1c k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt v\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng h\u1ee3p l\u00fd.<\/p>\n Th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf cho th\u1ea5y, \u0111\u00fang l\u00e0 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 b\u1ee9c tranh c\u00e1ch \u0111\u00e2y v\u00e0i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 b\u1ecb h\u01b0 h\u1ecfng do nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n kh\u00e1ch quan nh\u01b0 chi\u1ebfn tranh, thi\u1ebfu s\u1ef1 b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7, ho\u1eb7c \u0111\u00e3 qu\u00e1 l\u00e2u \u0111\u1eddi nh\u01b0ng nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n s\u1ef1 xu\u1ed1ng c\u1ea5p c\u1ee7a nhi\u1ec1u t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u1edf th\u1eddi c\u1eadn \u0111\u1ea1i l\u1ea1i ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 do c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129.<\/p>\n Trong th\u1eddi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i khi ch\u01b0a c\u00f3 s\u1eb5n nh\u1eefng s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m b\u1ed9t m\u00e0u, m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi mu\u1ed1n \u0111\u1ebfn h\u1ecdc vi\u1ec7c trong x\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ebd c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129, c\u00f4ng vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean m\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y ph\u1ea3i h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 c\u00e1ch t\u1ea1o ra b\u1ed9t m\u00e0u. T\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng di\u1ec7n m\u00e0 c\u00e1c b\u1eadc th\u1ea7y \u0111i tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e3 t\u00edch l\u0169y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c, t\u1eeb c\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i b\u1ed9t m\u00e0u, \u0111\u1eb7c t\u00ednh, s\u1ef1 t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u00e1c qua l\u1ea1i gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ed9 h\u1ea5p th\u1ee5, \u0111\u1ed9 \u1ed5n \u0111\u1ecbnh, \u0111\u1ed9 c\u1ee9ng c\u1ee7a m\u00e0u v.v., \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u m\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u1ecdc vi\u1ec7c ph\u1ea3i h\u1ecdc thu\u1ed9c l\u00f2ng. V\u00ec r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u lo\u1ea1i thu\u1ed1c m\u00e0u c\u1ee7a h\u1ecda s\u0129 l\u00e0 do nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u1ecdc vi\u1ec7c ho\u1eb7c nh\u1eefng tr\u1ee3 l\u00fd chu\u1ea9n b\u1ecb. N\u1ebfu c\u00f3 sai s\u00f3t trong th\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n m\u00e0u, \u0111\u1ec3 x\u1ea3y ra ph\u1ea3n \u1ee9ng h\u00f3a h\u1ecdc d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a h\u1ecda s\u0129 b\u1ecb h\u01b0 h\u1ecfng trong v\u00f2ng v\u00e0i n\u0103m, th\u00ec nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh s\u1ebd \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ebfn danh ti\u1ebfng c\u1ee7a v\u1ecb h\u1ecda s\u0129. V\u00ec v\u1eady, vi\u1ec7c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u lu\u00f4n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n quan tr\u1ecdng trong ch\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 th\u1eddi x\u01b0a.<\/p>\n T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u201cHoa h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u01b0\u01a1ng\u201d (Les Tournesols) c\u1ee7a h\u1ecda s\u0129 Van Gogh, tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u v\u1ebd tr\u00ean n\u1ec1n v\u1ea3i, k\u00edch th\u01b0\u1edbc 93 \u00d7 72 cm, s\u00e1ng t\u00e1c v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1889. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 b\u1ee9c tranh n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ea3o qu\u1ea3n t\u1ed1t nh\u1ea5t d\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n nhi\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed9 v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed9 \u1ea9m \u1ed5n \u0111\u1ecbnh trong vi\u1ec7n b\u1ea3o t\u00e0ng v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 b\u1ea3o tr\u00ec c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c chuy\u00ean gia, nh\u01b0ng m\u00e0u c\u1ee7a hoa h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u00e3 thay \u0111\u1ed5i t\u1eeb m\u00e0u v\u00e0ng s\u00e1ng ban \u0111\u1ea7u chuy\u1ec3n sang m\u00e0u h\u01a1i n\u00e2u xanh, v\u00e0o th\u00e1ng 3 n\u0103m nay n\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u1ee5c h\u1ed3i t\u1ea1m th\u1eddi b\u1edfi nh\u00f3m chuy\u00ean gia c\u1ee7a vi\u1ec7n b\u1ea3o t\u00e0ng.<\/p>\n C\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i thu\u1ed1c m\u00e0u kh\u00e1c nhau c\u00f3 t\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t h\u00f3a h\u1ecdc kh\u00e1c nhau. M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 lo\u1ea1i thu\u1ed1c m\u00e0u c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tr\u1ed9n \u0111\u1ec1u v\u1edbi nhau m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng b\u1ecb bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed5i, nh\u01b0ng m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 lo\u1ea1i c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u1ea1o th\u00e0nh ph\u1ea3n \u1ee9ng h\u00f3a h\u1ecdc khi tr\u1ed9n v\u1edbi nhau. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u00ed d\u1ee5:<\/p>\n V\u00e0o th\u00e1ng 3 n\u0103m nay, b\u1ea3o t\u00e0ng Van Gogh \u1edf Amsterdam \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a b\u1ee9c “Hoa h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u01b0\u01a1ng” (“Les Tournesols”) do Van Gogh v\u1ebd v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1889 ra kh\u1ecfi ph\u00f2ng tri\u1ec3n l\u00e3m \u0111\u1ec3 tr\u00f9ng tu. Nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu l\u00e0 do Van Gogh \u0111\u00e3 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng m\u00e0u v\u00e0ng crom (Jaune de chrome) v\u00e0 m\u00e0u v\u00e0ng cadmium trong c\u00e1c b\u1ee9c tranh n\u00e0y. Th\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n m\u00e0u v\u00e0ng crom, ch\u00ec cromat, s\u1ebd d\u1ea7n d\u1ea7n chuy\u1ec3n sang m\u00e0u n\u00e2u d\u01b0\u1edbi tia c\u1ef1c t\u00edm, v\u00e0 lo\u1ea1i m\u00e0u n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 tr\u1ed9n l\u1eabn v\u1edbi c\u00e1c ch\u1ea5t m\u00e0u c\u00f3 ch\u1ee9a sunfua, n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng s\u1ebd b\u1ecb chuy\u1ec3n sang m\u00e0u \u0111en. Th\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n h\u00f3a h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a m\u00e0u v\u00e0ng cadmium ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu g\u1ed3m c\u00f3 cadmium sulfide (ho\u1eb7c th\u00eam m\u1ed9t \u00edt bari sulfat), v\u00e0 \u0111\u1eb7c t\u00ednh ch\u1ee9a l\u01b0u hu\u1ef3nh khi\u1ebfn th\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 tr\u1ed9n l\u1eabn v\u1edbi c\u00e1c ch\u1ea5t m\u00e0u c\u00f3 ch\u1ee9a ch\u00ec, \u0111\u1ed3ng v\u00e0 s\u1eaft, n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng m\u00e0u v\u00e0ng cadmium s\u1ebd ph\u1ea3n \u1ee9ng v\u1edbi c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n kim lo\u1ea1i n\u00e0y v\u00e0 m\u00e0u s\u1eafc s\u1ebd chuy\u1ec3n sang m\u00e0u \u0111en v\u00e0 s\u1eabm l\u1ea1i sau m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi gian. M\u00e0u s\u1eafc c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng b\u00f4ng hoa h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u01b0\u01a1ng trong tranh c\u1ee7a Van Gogh c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 thay \u0111\u1ed5i t\u1eeb m\u00e0u v\u00e0ng t\u01b0\u01a1i ban \u0111\u1ea7u sang m\u00e0u xanh l\u1ee5c n\u00e2u hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i, v\u00e0 m\u00e0u s\u1eafc c\u1ee7a tranh v\u1eabn \u0111ang thay \u0111\u1ed5i theo h\u01b0\u1edbng s\u1eabm m\u00e0u h\u01a1n theo th\u1eddi gian. T\u00ecnh tr\u1ea1ng n\u00e0y c\u0169ng x\u1ea3y ra \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft nh\u1eefng h\u1ecda s\u0129 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c trang b\u1ecb ki\u1ebfn th\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 thu\u1ed1c m\u00e0u. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng, h\u1eadu \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng, tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i d\u00e3 th\u00fa, tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i tr\u1eebu t\u01b0\u1ee3ng v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo c\u00e1c ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i kh\u00e1c. Khi Van Gogh c\u00f2n s\u1ed1ng, \u00f4ng c\u0169ng ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh s\u1ebd \u0111\u1ed5i m\u00e0u sau m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi gian ng\u1eafn, v\u00e0 th\u1eadm ch\u00ed Van Gogh c\u00f2n \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t c\u00e2u n\u00f3i n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1ec1 \u0111\u1eb7c \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y: \u201cTranh r\u1ed3i s\u1ebd phai t\u00e0n nh\u01b0 hoa\u201d.<\/p>\n Tuy nhi\u00ean, Albrecht D\u00fcrer, m\u1ed9t b\u1eadc th\u1ea7y v\u1ec1 v\u1ebd tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u nhi\u1ec1u l\u1edbp tr\u01b0\u1edbc Van Gogh g\u1ea7n b\u1ed1n th\u1ebf k\u1ef7, c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t c\u00e2u n\u00f3i n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng: \u201cT\u00f4i bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c tranh n\u00e0y c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i s\u1ebd gi\u1eef \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ed9 t\u01b0\u01a1i s\u00e1ng trong n\u0103m tr\u0103m n\u0103m n\u1eefa\u201d.<\/p>\n Khi \u0111\u1ed1i m\u1eb7t v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ki\u1ec7t t\u00e1c v\u1eabn c\u00f2n nguy\u00ean v\u1eb9n qua bao th\u0103ng tr\u1ea7m l\u1ecbch s\u1eed c\u1ee7a D\u00fcrer, nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng kh\u1ecfi t\u1ef1 h\u1ecfi ph\u1ea3i ch\u0103ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ngh\u1ec7 s\u0129 b\u1eadc th\u1ea7y \u0111\u00e3 v\u1ebd b\u1ea3y ho\u1eb7c t\u00e1m l\u1edbp m\u00e0u trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m n\u00e0y c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai.<\/p>\n B\u1ee9c “Ch\u00e2n dung t\u1ef1 h\u1ecda \u0111eo g\u0103ng tay” (Autoportrait aux gants) c\u1ee7a D\u00fcrer, tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u v\u1ebd tr\u00ean b\u1ea3n g\u1ed7, k\u00edch th\u01b0\u1edbc 52 \u00d7 41 cm, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh n\u0103m 1498. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 ra \u0111\u1eddi c\u00e1ch \u0111\u00e2y h\u01a1n 500 n\u0103m, nh\u01b0ng nh\u1eefng hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft s\u00e2u s\u1eafc v\u1ec1 ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda v\u00e0 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p v\u1ebd s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u nhi\u1ec1u l\u1edbp c\u1ee7a D\u00fcrer \u0111\u00e3 gi\u00fap cho t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m v\u1eabn gi\u1eef \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eafc th\u00e1i s\u00e1ng s\u1ee7a v\u00e0 t\u01b0\u01a1i m\u1edbi sau bao th\u0103ng tr\u1ea7m c\u1ee7a l\u1ecbch s\u1eed.<\/p>\n Nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi cho r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 th\u1eddi x\u01b0a s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p v\u1ebd tranh nhi\u1ec1u l\u1edbp \u0111\u1ec3 tr\u00e1nh ph\u1ea3i k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi n\u00e9t v\u1ebd, h\u00ecnh kh\u1ed1i, m\u00e0u s\u1eafc v\u00e0 c\u00e1c y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 kh\u00e1c m\u00e0 vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y kh\u00e1 kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n. Tuy nhi\u00ean \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00fang. Trong th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i ch\u00fa tr\u1ecdng \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00e1c k\u1ef9 n\u0103ng c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda, t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 \u0111\u1ec1u tr\u1ea3i qua kh\u00f3a \u0111\u00e0o t\u1ea1o k\u1ef9 n\u0103ng c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n kh\u1eaft khe h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u l\u1ea7n so v\u1edbi ng\u00e0y nay. C\u00e1c t\u00e0i li\u1ec7u nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u1ec1 tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u do nhi\u1ec1u b\u1eadc th\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i cho th\u1ea5y h\u1ecd c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 d\u1ec5 d\u00e0ng kh\u1eafc h\u1ecda n\u1ed9i dung c\u1ea3 h\u00ecnh v\u00e0 m\u00e0u trong m\u1ed9t kho\u1ea3ng th\u1eddi gian r\u1ea5t ng\u1eafn b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch v\u1ebd tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp. Tuy nhi\u00ean, ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p v\u1ebd tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp n\u00e0y hi\u1ebfm khi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng, v\u00e0 c\u00e1c b\u1ee9c tranh th\u01b0\u1eddng tu\u00e2n th\u1ee7 nghi\u00eam ng\u1eb7t nh\u1eefng y\u00eau c\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p v\u1ebd nhi\u1ec1u l\u1edbp.<\/p>\n M\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng l\u00fd do quan tr\u1ecdng l\u00e0 c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 mu\u1ed1n tr\u00e1nh vi\u1ec7c tr\u1ed9n c\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i thu\u1ed1c m\u00e0u, b\u1edfi vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u1ea1o n\u00ean c\u00e1c ph\u1ea3n \u1ee9ng h\u00f3a h\u1ecdc b\u1ea5t l\u1ee3i. Vi\u1ec7c l\u1ef1a ch\u1ecdn nh\u1eefng l\u1edbp s\u01a1n l\u00f3t l\u00e0 d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean c\u00e1c kinh nghi\u1ec7m qua s\u1ef1 kh\u00f4ng ng\u1eebng kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 v\u00e0 th\u1ef1c h\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111i tr\u01b0\u1edbc, m\u1ed7i l\u1edbp ch\u1ec9 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u00e1c ki\u1ec3u pha tr\u1ed9n thu\u1ed1c m\u00e0u \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ee9ng minh l\u00e0 an to\u00e0n. D\u00f9 l\u00e0 l\u1edbp Brunaille (l\u1edbp x\u00e1m n\u00e2u), l\u1edbp Verdaccio (l\u1edbp x\u00e1m xanh) th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng trong c\u00e1c k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n, ho\u1eb7c l\u1edbp Grisaille (l\u1edbp \u0111\u1ecbnh h\u00ecnh m\u00e0u x\u00e1m ch\u1ebft) th\u01b0\u1eddng d\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ec3 s\u01a1n ph\u1ee7 l\u1edbp tr\u00ean, m\u1ed7i l\u1ea7n ch\u1ec9 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng m\u1ed9t ho\u1eb7c hai ho\u1eb7c m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i lo\u1ea1i thu\u1ed1c m\u00e0u an to\u00e0n \u0111\u1ec3 tr\u00e1nh t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng nguy c\u01a1 ti\u1ec1m \u1ea9n.<\/p>\n \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi l\u1edbp s\u01a1n t\u1ea1o b\u00f3ng ho\u1eb7c b\u00e1n trong su\u1ed1t \u1edf nh\u1eefng t\u1ea7ng ngo\u00e0i, \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec7u \u1ee9ng “b\u1ee5i quang h\u1ecdc”, m\u1ed7i l\u1edbp ch\u1ec9 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng m\u1ed9t ho\u1eb7c hai m\u00e0u, khi g\u1eb7p c\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i thu\u1ed1c m\u00e0u c\u00f3 ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng h\u00f3a h\u1ecdc ph\u1ea3i c\u00f3 bi\u1ec7n ph\u00e1p c\u00e1ch ly v\u1edbi c\u00e1c l\u1edbp m\u00e0u kh\u00e1c. Sau khi ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh m\u1ed7i l\u1edbp, ph\u1ea3i ki\u00ean nh\u1eabn \u0111\u1ee3i l\u1edbp m\u00e0u n\u00e0y kh\u00f4 \u0111i, khi c\u00e1c ph\u1ea3n \u1ee9ng v\u1eadt l\u00fd v\u00e0 h\u00f3a h\u1ecdc c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n th\u00ec m\u1edbi ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh s\u01a1n l\u1edbp ti\u1ebfp theo…. \u0110\u1ec3 v\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, b\u1ea1n c\u1ea7n c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t t\u00e2m th\u1ebf \u0111\u1ee7 t\u1eadp trung, c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 t\u00edch l\u0169y kinh nghi\u1ec7m l\u00e2u n\u0103m trong k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p, \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi vi\u1ec7c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u ph\u1ea3i tu\u00e2n theo quy lu\u1eadt t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, c\u00f3 nh\u01b0 v\u1eady t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m m\u1edbi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tr\u01b0\u1eddng t\u1ed3n c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi th\u1eddi gian.<\/p>\n L\u00fd tr\u00ed v\u00e0 \u0111am m\u00ea<\/b><\/p>\n Tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u, \u0111\u00e3 thay th\u1ebf tranh tempera tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c h\u1ed9i ho\u1ea1 gi\u00e1 v\u1ebd ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ea1o, c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u \u01b0u \u0111i\u1ec3m t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean: v\u00ed d\u1ee5, s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u d\u1ec5 k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p v\u00e0 pha tr\u1ed9n, thu\u1eadn ti\u1ec7n cho vi\u1ec7c chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed5i; m\u00e0u s\u1eafc sau khi pha tr\u1ed9n tinh t\u1ebf v\u00e0 phong ph\u00fa, c\u00f3 t\u00ednh bi\u1ec3u c\u1ea3m m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd; t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 kh\u00f4 ch\u1eadm c\u1ee7a d\u1ea7u cho ph\u00e9p c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u th\u1eddi gian h\u01a1n \u0111\u1ec3 m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 s\u00e2u s\u1eafc c\u00e1c chi ti\u1ebft v\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u ch\u1ec9nh, v.v… D\u1ef1a tr\u00ean nh\u1eefng y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 n\u00e0y, c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o ra ho\u1eb7c ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n nh\u1eefng k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt v\u00e0 phong c\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda l\u1edbn.<\/p>\n Nh\u01b0ng \u1edf th\u1eddi hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i, c\u00e1c h\u1ecda s\u0129 \u0111\u00e3 d\u1ea7n b\u1ecf \u0111i nh\u1eefng \u01b0u \u0111i\u1ec3m t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean c\u1ee7a tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u, \u0111\u1ec3 theo \u0111u\u1ed5i c\u1ea3m gi\u00e1c t\u1ee9c th\u1eddi c\u1ee7a \u00fd th\u1ee9c b\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m. H\u1ecd ho\u1eb7c th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng v\u00e0 b\u00f3ng t\u1ed1i b\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng n\u00e9t b\u00fat run r\u1ea9y, ho\u1eb7c th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n c\u1ea3m x\u00fac ch\u1ee7 quan b\u1eb1ng n\u00e9t c\u1ecd m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd v\u00e0 xao \u0111\u1ed9ng. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y tr\u00e1i ng\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1edbi quan ni\u1ec7m truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng khi c\u00e1c ngh\u1ec7 s\u0129 b\u1eadc th\u1ea7y ti\u1ec1n b\u1ed1i th\u01b0\u1eddng ch\u00fa \u00fd h\u00f2a n\u00e9t c\u1ecd v\u00e0o h\u00ecnh th\u1ec3 theo c\u00e1c l\u1edbp m\u00e0u d\u00e0y m\u1ecfng v\u1eeba ph\u1ea3i, kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n s\u1ef1 th\u00f4 k\u1ec7ch \u1edf nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb tr\u00ed c\u1ea7n tinh t\u1ebf. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n l\u00e0 phong c\u00e1ch m\u00e0 c\u00f2n li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng kinh nghi\u1ec7m qu\u00fd b\u00e1u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ebf h\u1ec7 \u0111i tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i.<\/p>\n M\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u201cC\u1ea3nh bi\u1ec3n t\u1ea1i qu\u1eadn Gloucester\u201d (Gloucester harbor view) c\u1ee7a ho\u1ea1 s\u0129 Henryk Francis Twardzik, tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u v\u1ebd tr\u00ean n\u1ec1n v\u1ea3i, s\u00e1ng t\u00e1c v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1928. T\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 kh\u00f4ng ch\u00fa \u00fd \u0111\u1ebfn v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u v\u00e0 k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p, khi\u1ebfn cho b\u1ee9c tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u b\u1ecb n\u1ee9t v\u1ee1 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n sau nhi\u1ec1u th\u1eadp k\u1ef7 ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh, c\u00e1c nguy\u00ean li\u1ec7u m\u00e0u r\u01a1i ra l\u00e0m l\u1ed9 l\u1edbp n\u1ec1n v\u1ea3i b\u00ean d\u01b0\u1edbi c\u1ee7a b\u1ee9c tranh.<\/p>\n M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1eadn \u0111\u1ea1i v\u00e0 hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng t\u1ed1i \u0111a ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p impasto (v\u1ebd s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u \u1edf d\u1ea1ng \u0111\u1eb7c qu\u00e1nh) \u0111ang \u0111\u1ee9ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc t\u00ecnh tr\u1ea1ng kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 b\u1ea3o qu\u1ea3n. M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng sau khi ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh, d\u00f9 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eeda ch\u1eefa nhi\u1ec1u l\u1ea7n nh\u01b0ng v\u1eabn kh\u00f4ng ng\u0103n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 n\u1ee9t v\u00e0 bong tr\u00f3c c\u1ee7a l\u1edbp s\u01a1n. L\u00fd do c\u1ee7a \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y r\u1ea5t \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n: trong lo\u1ea1i h\u00ecnh ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt n\u00e0y, s\u1ef1 \u0111am m\u00ea qu\u00e1 m\u1ee9c s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c quy lu\u1eadt t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 cao.<\/p>\n M\u1ed9t b\u1ee9c tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u1eadt th\u1ec3 t\u0129nh. Tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u c\u0169ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 sinh m\u1ec7nh \u0111ang h\u00f4 h\u1ea5p, v\u00e0 th\u1ec3 t\u00edch c\u1ee7a tranh s\u1ebd thay \u0111\u1ed5i theo th\u1eddi gian. N\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng t\u00ednh \u0111\u1ebfn s\u1ef1 gi\u00e3n n\u1edf ho\u1eb7c co l\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a l\u1edbp m\u00e0u d\u01b0\u1edbi nhi\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed9 v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed9 \u1ea9m trong nh\u1eefng ng\u00e0y b\u00ecnh th\u01b0\u1eddng, b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh kh\u00f4 l\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a b\u1ee9c tranh c\u0169ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh c\u00f3 r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u thay \u0111\u1ed5i. Qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh kh\u00f4 c\u1ee7a s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00e1c v\u1edbi qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh bay h\u01a1i n\u01b0\u1edbc \u1edf tranh m\u00e0u n\u01b0\u1edbc. Qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh n\u00e0y d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o s\u1ef1 h\u1ea5p th\u1ee5 oxy trong kh\u00f4ng kh\u00ed. L\u1edbp s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u ph\u00eda tr\u00ean s\u1ebd k\u1ebft m\u1ea1c v\u00e0 \u0111\u00f4ng \u0111\u1eb7c l\u1ea1i d\u01b0\u1edbi t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh oxy h\u00f3a, khi\u1ebfn ch\u00fang ta nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 l\u1edbp d\u1ea7u \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4. Tuy nhi\u00ean, qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh ng\u1eafn, v\u00ec ph\u1ea7n ti\u1ebfp x\u00fac ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n v\u1edbi kh\u00f4ng kh\u00ed l\u00e0 l\u1edbp b\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t tr\u00ean c\u00f9ng c\u1ee7a s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u. L\u1edbp b\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t n\u00e0y trong tr\u1ea1ng th\u00e1i b\u1ecb oxy h\u00f3a ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n s\u1ebd t\u1ea1o th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t l\u1edbp ng\u0103n c\u00e1ch, khi\u1ebfn oxy kh\u00f3 x\u00e2m nh\u1eadp v\u00e0o c\u00e1c l\u1edbp s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u b\u00ean d\u01b0\u1edbi, nh\u01b0 v\u1eady ph\u1ea7n s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u c\u00f2n \u01b0\u1edbt s\u1ebd b\u1ecb b\u1ecbt k\u00edn v\u00e0 \u00edt ti\u1ebfp x\u00fac v\u1edbi oxy, t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 oxy h\u00f3a c\u1ee7a l\u1edbp n\u00e0y s\u1ebd ch\u1eadm l\u1ea1i v\u00e0 qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh kh\u00f4 c\u0169ng ch\u1eadm h\u01a1n.<\/p>\n Trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh kh\u00f4 oxy h\u00f3a n\u00e0y, s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u c\u00f2n c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1eb7c \u0111i\u1ec3m: tr\u1ecdng l\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a d\u1ea7u s\u1ebd t\u0103ng l\u00ean sau khi h\u1ea5p th\u1ee5 oxy v\u00e0 th\u1ec3 t\u00edch s\u1ebd n\u1edf ra, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 d\u1ea7u h\u1ea1t lanh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn nh\u1ea5t trong tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u, tr\u1ecdng l\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a d\u1ea7u s\u1ebd t\u0103ng 15% trong ph\u1ea3n \u1ee9ng oxy h\u00f3a. Tuy nhi\u00ean, sau khi k\u1ebft th\u00fac ph\u1ea3n \u1ee9ng oxy, m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi gian sau, do s\u1ef1 bi\u1ebfn m\u1ea5t d\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a hydro v\u00e0 oxy trong l\u1edbp d\u1ea7u kh\u00f4, l\u1edbp m\u00e0u s\u1ebd co l\u1ea1i v\u00e0 th\u1ec3 t\u00edch c\u0169ng gi\u1ea3m \u0111i. T\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 co gi\u00e3n trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh n\u00e0y c\u0169ng r\u1ea5t l\u1edbn.<\/p>\n N\u1ebfu l\u1edbp s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u ph\u00eda tr\u00ean kh\u00f4 v\u00e0 co l\u1ea1i, th\u1eadm ch\u00ed d\u1ea7n tr\u1edf n\u00ean gi\u00f2n h\u01a1n th\u00ec l\u1edbp m\u00e0u b\u00ean d\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111ang \u1edf trong giai \u0111o\u1ea1n oxy h\u00f3a v\u00e0 thay \u0111\u1ed5i th\u1ec3 t\u00edch, l\u00fac n\u00e0y hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u1ee9t l\u1edbp s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u ngo\u00e0i c\u00f9ng l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u kh\u00f3 tr\u00e1nh kh\u1ecfi. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u s\u1ebd x\u1ea3y ra v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c tranh c\u00f3 l\u1edbp s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u m\u1ed9t l\u1edbp r\u1ea5t d\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec3 theo \u0111u\u1ed5i t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng th\u1ecb gi\u00e1c. Trong l\u1edbp s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u d\u00e0y nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, s\u1ebd c\u00f3 hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng gi\u00e3n n\u1edf v\u00e0 co l\u1ea1i kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ed3ng \u0111\u1ec1u. Th\u1eadm ch\u00ed, \u0111\u1ec3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n c\u1ea3m x\u00fac ch\u1ee7 quan m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd, m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 h\u1ecda s\u0129 \u0111\u00e3 b\u00f3p s\u01a1n tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp t\u1eeb \u1ed1ng s\u01a1n l\u00ean khung v\u1ebd t\u1ea1o th\u00e0nh c\u00e1c l\u1edbp m\u00e0u. C\u00e1t, \u0111\u1ea5t, v\u1ee5n gi\u1ea5y, v\u1ea3i, m\u00f9n c\u01b0a v\u00e0 c\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i h\u1ed7n h\u1ee3p kh\u00e1c c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00eam v\u00e0o l\u1edbp s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u khi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed9 \u1ed5n \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u1ee7a ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u tr\u1edf n\u00ean r\u1ea5t mong manh.Nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c tranh s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0y s\u1ebd kh\u00f3 tho\u00e1t kh\u1ecfi s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn n\u1ee9t n\u1ebb, bong tr\u00f3c v\u00e0 b\u1ecb l\u1ecbch s\u1eed \u0111\u00e0o th\u1ea3i.<\/p>\n K\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 tinh th\u1ea7n<\/b><\/p>\n C\u00f3 m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec1u r\u1ea5t r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 tinh th\u1ea7n c\u00f3 m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 m\u1eadt thi\u1ebft v\u1edbi nhau. M\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi quen v\u1ebd ngu\u1ec7ch ngo\u1ea1c ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ec3 b\u1ed9c ph\u00e1t t\u00ecnh c\u1ea3m m\u00e0 b\u1ea5t ch\u1ea5p m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u0129nh t\u00e2m. Ng\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea1i, m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u1ecda s\u0129 trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh ki\u00ean tr\u00ec, trong s\u1ef1 r\u00e8n luy\u1ec7n l\u00f2ng khoan dung, trong s\u1ef1 ki\u00ean nh\u1eabn c\u1ee7a l\u00f2ng quy\u1ebft t\u00e2m, d\u1ef1a theo \u0111\u1eb7c t\u00ednh c\u1ee7a v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u v\u00e0 c\u00e1c quy lu\u1eadt c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n, tu\u00e2n theo nh\u1eefng k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c b\u1eadc th\u1ea7y truy\u1ec1n l\u1ea1i, v\u1ebd t\u1eebng l\u1edbp t\u1eebng l\u1edbp m\u1ed9t, s\u1ebd c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00e1c h\u1eb3n. T\u1eeb g\u00f3c \u0111\u1ed9 n\u00e0y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng, s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng t\u1ed1t c\u00e1c k\u1ef9 ph\u00e1p th\u1ef1c ra c\u0169ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i tu luy\u1ec7n. M\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch n\u00f4ng n\u1ed5i, m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00e1u k\u1ec9nh s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 v\u1ebd \u0111\u1eb9p. R\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u h\u1ecda s\u0129 th\u1eddi x\u01b0a c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 d\u00e0nh h\u00e0ng th\u00e1ng, th\u1eadm ch\u00ed h\u00e0ng n\u0103m tr\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ea1o n\u00ean m\u1ed9t b\u1ee9c ch\u00e2n dung. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u m\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u1ecdc h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda ng\u00e0y nay kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c.<\/p>\n Hi\u1ec7n nay, gi\u1edbi ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt \u0111ang c\u1ed5 v\u0169 tinh th\u1ea7n \u201c\u0111\u1ed5i m\u1edbi\u201d, c\u00e1c ngh\u1ec7 s\u0129 nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh \u0111\u1ebfn vi\u1ec7c th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n c\u00e1 t\u00ednh b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng th\u00edch l\u00e0m theo nh\u1eefng g\u00ec ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m. \u0110\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi, c\u00e1c kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m nh\u01b0 “ti\u00ean phong” v\u00e0 “ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a gi\u1ea3i c\u1ea5u tr\u00fac” (deconstruction) trong xu h\u01b0\u1edbng ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o ra m\u1ed9t b\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn kh\u00f4ng nh\u1ecf nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u1ea3n truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 ph\u1ea3n ch\u00ednh th\u1ed1ng. Nhi\u1ec1u h\u1ecda s\u0129 c\u0169ng gi\u01b0\u01a1ng cao ng\u1ecdn c\u1edd “\u0111\u1ed5i m\u1edbi” m\u00e0 t\u1eeb b\u1ecf m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 m\u00e0 h\u1ecd cho l\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 c\u0169.<\/p>\n Tuy nhi\u00ean, b\u1ea5t k\u1ec3 l\u00e0 k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt, v\u0103n h\u00f3a hay ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt, \u0111\u1ec1u do m\u1ed9t th\u1ebf h\u1ec7 d\u1ea7n d\u1ea7n ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n tr\u00ean c\u01a1 s\u1edf kinh nghi\u1ec7m c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf h\u1ec7 \u0111i tr\u01b0\u1edbc. S\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a phong c\u00e1ch ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt ch\u00ednh th\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u c\u0169ng l\u00e0 k\u1ebft tinh c\u1ee7a nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ebf h\u1ec7 n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c kh\u00f4ng ng\u1eebng trong su\u1ed1t chi\u1ec1u d\u00e0i l\u1ecbch s\u1eed. Ng\u00e0y nay, m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi mu\u1ed1n t\u1eeb b\u1ecf v\u00e0 “gi\u1ea3i c\u1ea5u tr\u00fac” t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng, v\u00e0 mu\u1ed1n t\u1ea1o ra m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i h\u00ecnh ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt m\u1edbi d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c, kh\u00ed ch\u1ea5t v\u00e0 l\u00f2ng d\u0169ng c\u1ea3m c\u1ee7a c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n h\u1ecd, gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 r\u1eddi b\u1ecf n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i \u0111ang nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u c\u00e1ch t\u1ea1o ra l\u1eeda. D\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 ch\u00fang ta \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb m\u00f9 qu\u00e1ng b\u1edfi s\u1ef1 ch\u1ea5p tr\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00e0o b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n v\u00e0 qu\u00e1 ch\u00fa tr\u1ecdng \u0111\u1ebfn vi\u1ec7c th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n c\u00e1 t\u00ednh khi\u1ebfn th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt \u0111i v\u00e0o ng\u00f5 c\u1ee5t.<\/p>\n![](\"http:\/\/chanhkien.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/1479714105-image.jpg\")
<\/a><\/p>\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<\/a><\/p>\n<\/a><\/p>\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n